Curriculum

[Don’t forget to check out our suggestions for practical exercises!]

In his highly recommended The Art of Living: The Stoics on the Nature and Function of Philosophy, one of our faculty, John Sellars, suggests that the ancient curriculum for ethical self-improvement included three types of text:

(1) Literature concerned with action: for instance Xenophon’s Memorabilia and Diogenes Laertius’s The Lives of the Eminent Philosophers.

(2) Literature concerned with theory: like the above mentioned Nicomachean Ethics, or Seneca’s On Anger.

(3) Literature concerned with practice: such as Epictetus’s Handbook, or Marcus Aurelius’s Meditations.

As John puts it, “In later antiquity it was often suggested that philosophical education should begin with the study of a philosopher’s life. … The student should next study arguments and doctrines before finally moving on to engage in exercises designed to digest those arguments and doctrines. The final goal is of course to transform one’s life into one similar to those studied at the very outset.”

Another one of our faculty, Massimo Pigliucci, has put together a suggested curriculum of study to facilitate what John describes and the ancients recommended. The full description of the curriculum can be found in chapter 8 of Massimo’s The Quest for Character: What the Story of Socrates and Alcibiades Teaches Us about Our Search for Good Leaders. Here are the highlights:

Proceed in sequence from one module to the next, at whatever pace is comfortable for you, so long as your readings are consistent and not just occasional. Take notes in a separate diary about your thoughts concerning each entry. Feel free to switch back and forth between the biographical, theoretical, and practical modules without skipping too far ahead (e.g., alternate Modules I, II, and III but finish this group before you move to IV, V, and VI). Start a philosophical journal of ethical self-improvement. In the journal, reflect not just on the content of your readings but also on what it means to you, and especially on how it should affect your behavior in everyday life as well as your overall view of your life trajectory. If possible, discuss your progress with friends or fellow practitioners of the art of living.

Module I—Biographical role models, 1. Diogenes Laertius, The Lives of the Eminent Philosophers (translation by Pamela Mensch). Diogenes Laertius is arguably our most comprehensive source on the lives and thought of the preeminent ancient philosophers in the Western tradition. Remember, these are intended to be moral biographies. Diogenes’s accounts are valuable because of how the lives he writes about may inspire us. He is not always careful with the biographical details, which is not atypical of ancient writers who did not necessarily share our contemporary notion of factual accuracy. Sometimes you may find that Diogenes even gets some philosophical principles wrong. But the point is to open one of his chapters and read for inspiration and direction. How did others live? What choices did they make? How do the questions asked in these texts relate to questions we face in our modern lives?

I especially recommend the sections on Socrates, Aristippus, Plato, Aristotle, Diogenes of Sinope, Hipparchia, Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, Heraclitus, Zeno of Elea, and Epicurus.

Module II—Theory, 1. Epictetus, Discourses (translation by Robin Waterfield). This is a compilation of short speeches by the Stoic philosopher Epictetus as well as conversations he had with his students. It was put together by Arrian of Nicomedia, one of Epictetus’s most prominent students, and it gives us an excellent feel for both Stoic philosophy and Epictetus’s dynamic personality. Unfortunately, only four of the original eight “books” survive, but the wealth of material and the span of topics is breathtaking. It helps that each section comes with a descriptive title, which can guide the reader interested in specific applications.

Here are some of my favorites: “Of the things which are under our control and not under our control” (I.1), “Of the use of equivocal premisses, hypothetical arguments and the like” (I.7), “Of family affection” (I.11), “That the art of reasoning is indispensable” (I.17), “That we ought not to be angry with the erring” (I.18), “How ought we to bear ourselves toward tyrants?” (I.19), “Of our preconceptions” (I.22), “In answer to Epicurus” (I.23), “How should we struggle against difficulties?” (I.24), “On tranquillity” (II.2), “To the man who had once been caught in adultery” (II.4), “What is the true nature of the good?” (II.8), “What is the beginning of philosophy?” (II.11), “Of anxiety” (II.13), “Of friendship” (II.22), “How is logic necessary?” (II.25), “Of personal adornment” (III.1), “How ought we to bear our illness?” (III.10), “Of training” (III.12), “That one should enter cautiously into social intercourse” (III.16), “On the calling of a Cynic” (III.22), “To those who read and discuss for the purpose of display” (III.23), “That we ought not to yearn for the things that are not under our control” (III.24), “To those who fear want” (III.26), “Of freedom” (IV.1), “Of social intercourse” (IV.2), “What things should be exchanged for what things?” (IV.3), “Against the contentious and brutal” (IV.5), “Of freedom from fear” (IV.7), “Of cleanliness” (IV.11), and “Of attention” (IV.12).

Module III—Practice, 1. Marcus Aurelius, Meditations (translation by Robin Waterfield). This famous book was actually not meant for publication, as it was the emperor’s personal philosophical diary. Philosophical journaling is a fundamental technique for Stoic practice, the efficacy of which has been confirmed by modern cognitive behavioral therapy. You could use Marcus’s words as both an inspiration and a broad template. You will see that he writes in the second person, as if he were addressing a friend. This approach, according to contemporary psychologists, has the advantage of helping to put some emotional distance between you and the life episodes you are describing so that an analytical approach comes more easily. Note that the Meditations don’t have any particular structure, as you would expect in a diary. They are also somewhat repetitive and “preachy,” again as you would expect given that this was the personal journal of someone who was chiding himself in order to make progress. The glaring exception is “book” I, which is really an extended exercise in gratitude, where Marcus lists the major people who influenced him in his life and elaborates on what they taught him. Gratitude exercises are another standard tool in the Stoic toolbox and are also practiced within other philosophical traditions.

Module IV—Biographical role models, 2. Xenophon, Memorabilia (translation by Amy L. Bonnette). Much of what we know about Socrates’s philosophy comes from Plato. But Xenophon’s Memorabilia tells us a lot more about Socrates the man. In reading it, we get a vivid sense of what the philosopher’s day must have been like, how he interacted with other people, and what his concerns were. We also find an interesting defense of Socrates by one of his close friends. This is the book that, in a way, got Stoicism started, as it was the Memorabilia that turned Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoa, to philosophy.

Module V—Theory, 2. Seneca, On Anger (translation by Robert A. Kaster and Martha C. Nussbaum). Although this book may appear to be narrowly focused, as its main topic is a particular instance of what the Stoics referred to as unhealthy emotions, that is, emotions that go against reason, it is one of the most important surviving Stoic texts. By discussing anger, Seneca gives us a broad overview of how the Stoics treated emotions in general, contrasting the unhealthy ones (anger, fear, hatred, and so on) with the healthy ones (love, joy, a sense of justice, and so forth). It also includes a sophisticated description of the nature and stages of anger as well as practical advice on anger management that is still pretty much what is recommended by the American Psychological Association. And it’s beautifully written.

Module VI—Practice, 2. Epictetus, Enchiridion, the short manual for a good life (translation by Robin Waterfield). These fifty-three short sections were compiled by Arrian of Nicomedia, Epictetus’s student, to summarize the Discourses and therefore the fundamentals of Epictetus’s philosophy. They provide clear guidance for actual behavior following Stoic precepts, and the book is supposed to be used as a vade mecum (carry-with-you), to be consulted when needed. Massimo published an update of the Enchiridion for the twenty-first century titled A Field Guide to a Happy Life: 53 Brief Lessons for Living. You may want to add it to your module and draw cross-comparisons with Epictetus’s original.

Module VII—Biographical role models, 3. Plutarch, Parallel Lives (translation by Bernadotte Perrin). This classic is not just about philosophers, and certainly not specifically about Stoicism. Indeed, Plutarch was a prominent critic of the Stoics. But his parallel portraits of famous people from antiquity are meant to be the quintessential guide to spotting good and bad moral behavior. To make the task easier, Plutarch often even directly compares the members of each pair to each other after having summarized their individual lives.

Particularly noteworthy are Solon and Publicola, Themistocles and Camillus, Pericles and Fabius Maximus, Alcibiades and Coriolanus, Lysander and Sulla, Nicias and Crassus, Agesilaus and Pompey, Alexander and Caesar, Phocion and Cato the Younger, Demosthenes and Cicero, and Dion and Brutus.

Module VIII—Theory, 3. Seneca, Letters to Lucilius (translation by Margaret Graver and A. A. Long). These 124 letters from Seneca to his friend Lucilius are described by classicist Liz Gloyn as an informal curriculum in Stoic philosophy. Seneca cyclically revisits a number of themes, becoming increasingly in-depth in their treatment.

Some of my favorites are “On saving time” (1), “On true and false friendship” (3), “On the terrors of death” (4), “On crowds” (7), “On old age” (12), “On philosophy and riches” (17), “On festivals and fasting” (18), “On practicing what you preach” (20), “On travel as a cure for discontent” (28), “On the value of retirement” (36), “On master and slave” (47), “On the shortness of life” (49), “On choosing our teachers” (52), “On asthma and death” (54), “On quiet and study” (56), “On pleasure and joy” (59), “On grief for lost friends” (63), “On ill-health and endurance of suffering” (67), “On the proper time to slip the cable” (70), “On business as the enemy of philosophy” (72), “On the rewards of scientific discovery” (79), “On benefits” (81), “On some vain syllogisms” (85), “On the happy life” (92), “On the quality, as contrasted with the length, of life” (93), “On the usefulness of basic principles” (95), “On the fickleness of fortune” (98), “On the futility of planning ahead” (101), “On true and false riches” (110), “On the vanity of mental gymnastics” (111), “On style as a mirror of character” (114), “On self-control” (116), “On the conflict between pleasure and virtue” (123), and “On the true good as attained by reason” (124).

Module IX—Practice, 3. A Handbook for New Stoics, coauthored by Massimo Pigliucci and Greg Lopez. It is a rather unique book among modern offerings because it is highly focused on philosophical practice. It contains fifty-two exercises, grouped according to the three standard disciplines outlined by Epictetus: desire and aversion (about how to reorganize our priorities in life), action (how to act in the world, particularly with regard to other people), and assent (how to sharpen our faculty of judgment). Each exercise is culled from the ancient Stoic literature and updated with the latest from psychology and cognitive science.